How Has Vegetarianism Changed Over The Years

Vegetarian nutrition: by, present, future

Claus Leitzmann

1From the Department of Nutrition, Giessen Academy, Wilhelmstrasse xx, 35392 Giessen, Frg

3Address correspondence and requests for reprints to C Leitzmann, Establish of Nutrition, Wilhelmstrasse 20, 35392 Giessen, Deutschland. E-mail: claus@leitzmann-Giessen.de.

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Abstract

Early human food cultures were plant-based. Major religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism have recommended a vegetarian style of life since their formulation. The recorded history of vegetarian diet started in the sixth century bc by followers of the Orphic mysteries. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras is considered the begetter of ethical vegetarianism. The Pythagorean way of life was followed by a number of important personalities and influenced vegetarian nutrition until the 19th century. In Europe, vegetarian diet more than or less disappeared during the Middle Ages. In the Renaissance era and in the Age of Enlightenment, various personalities skilful vegetarianism. The start vegetarian society was started in England in 1847. The International Vegetarian Gild was founded in 1908 and the first vegan society began in 1944. Prominent vegetarians during this time included Sylvester Graham, John Harvey Kellogg, and Maximilian Bircher-Benner. A prototype shift occurred at the turn of the 21st century. The former prejudices that vegetarianism leads to malnutrition were replaced past scientific evidence showing that vegetarian diet reduces the take a chance of about contemporary diseases. Today, vegetarian nutrition has a growing international following and is increasingly accepted. The main reasons for this trend are health concerns and ethical, ecologic, and social issues. The future of vegetarian diet is promising considering sustainable diet is crucial for the well-existence of humankind. An increasing number of people exercise not want animals to endure nor do they want climatic change; they want to avert preventable diseases and to secure a livable futurity for generations to come.

INTRODUCTION

In this article, the term vegetarian nutrition refers to all forms of this diet. Whenever vegan, raw food, or related diets are implied, this is explicitly mentioned.

The anatomic and physiologic characteristics of carnivores and herbivores in the brute kingdom compared with the characteristics of humans show that humans are omnivores past nature (1). All the same, constitute foods may be the most of import nutrient source for human health (two–five).

In former times, plants and their fruit were near likely e'er available, and they were easy to gather. Hunting animals was difficult and often dangerous, so that fauna products were probably only consumed sporadically, except for short periods such equally in the Paleolithic Era. Information technology is likely that the consumption of minor and deadening-moving animals, eggs, fish, and possibly os marrow and feces may have played a function in the development of the human brain. With the introduction of agriculture, homo diets became increasingly plant-centered.

THE HISTORY OF VEGETARIAN NUTRITION

The data on the early on phase of vegetarian nutrition are fragmentary and are not always consistent. Some helpful information tin can be derived from the writings of historical authors (6). Information technology is fairly articulate that major early on human cultures practiced a predominantly plant-based diet, but the precise historical extent of vegetarianism remains unknown (Tabular array ane).

Table 1

Staple foods of important early on human cultures ¹

Culture	Staple foods
Arab republic of egypt	Wheat, barley
China	Wheat, soya, sorghum
India	Corn, rice, wheat, lentils
Heart Due east	Wheat, chickpeas
Mexico, Mayas	Corn/maize, amaranth
Peru, Incas	Potatoes, quinoa

Culture	Staple foods
Egypt	Wheat, barley
People's republic of china	Wheat, soya, sorghum
Bharat	Corn, rice, wheat, lentils
Heart Eastward	Wheat, chickpeas
Mexico, Mayas	Corn/maize, amaranth
Peru, Incas	Potatoes, quinoa

Table i

Staple foods of important early human cultures ¹

Civilization	Staple foods
Egypt	Wheat, barley
China	Wheat, soya, sorghum
Republic of india	Corn, rice, wheat, lentils
Middle E	Wheat, chickpeas
United mexican states, Mayas	Corn/maize, amaranth
Republic of peru, Incas	Potatoes, quinoa

Culture	Staple foods
Arab republic of egypt	Wheat, barley
China	Wheat, soya, sorghum
India	Corn, rice, wheat, lentils
Middle East	Wheat, chickpeas
Mexico, Mayas	Corn/maize, amaranth
Peru, Incas	Potatoes, quinoa

Many major religions include certain rules with regard to what to swallow and drinkable and rules about conduct toward animals, ranging from kind treatment to an equal standing with humans. These rules remain influential in many religions and cultures to the nowadays time.

The oldest written documents on vegetarianism in Europe engagement back to the sixth century bc past followers of the Orphic mysteries. This religious group banned the sacrifice of animals and the consumption of meat and refused to eat anything animal-based (including eggs). At approximately the aforementioned time, the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras developed his ideas almost reincarnation, which led to the avoidance of the consumption of meat. He is considered the father of ethical vegetarianism and his name gave rising to the term Pythagorean way of life. The Pythagorean way of life was embraced by a number of prominent classical philosophers and writers (Tabular array two) and influenced nutrition in Europe until the 19th century.

Tabular array 2

Famous vegetarians in ancient Greece ¹

Name	Profession	Dates of birth and death	Reference to vegetarianism
Pythagoras	Greek philosopher and mathematician	570–500 bc	Considered the founder of ethical vegetarianism. He recommended animal food but from living organisms (milk, eggs).
Plato	Greek philosopher	428–348 bc	In his volume Politeia, he suggested that town people exist vegetarian to stay healthy. Only meat eaters living in the country need a doc.
Xenokrates	Greek philosopher	395–314 bc	Wrote the start paper on vegetarianism (non preserved, documented by other Greek writers).
Theophrastus	Greek philosopher	370–287 bc	Believed that humans and animals are related to one another physically and mentally.
Apolloius	Greek philosopher and preacher	40–90 advertising	Was considered the first documented prominent vegan.
Ovid	Roman poet	47 bc to 17 advertizing	In his book Metamorphosis he provided strong arguments against eating meat.
Plutarch	Greek poet	45–120 ad	Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism that is preserved. In his book Moralia he recommends respecting animals.
Plotin	Egyptian/Greek philosopher	205–270 ad	Revived the Pythagorean way of life.
Porphyrios	Greek author	234–305 ad	Wrote the first book on vegetarians that has been preserved.

Name	Profession	Dates of birth and expiry	Reference to vegetarianism
Pythagoras	Greek philosopher and mathematician	570–500 bc	Considered the founder of ethical vegetarianism. He recommended brute food only from living organisms (milk, eggs).
Plato	Greek philosopher	428–348 bc	In his book Politeia, he suggested that town people exist vegetarian to stay salubrious. Simply meat eaters living in the state need a dr..
Xenokrates	Greek philosopher	395–314 bc	Wrote the beginning paper on vegetarianism (not preserved, documented by other Greek writers).
Theophrastus	Greek philosopher	370–287 bc	Believed that humans and animals are related to one another physically and mentally.
Apolloius	Greek philosopher and preacher	40–90 advertising	Was considered the starting time documented prominent vegan.
Ovid	Roman poet	47 bc to 17 ad	In his volume Metamorphosis he provided strong arguments against eating meat.
Plutarch	Greek poet	45–120 ad	Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism that is preserved. In his volume Moralia he recommends respecting animals.
Plotin	Egyptian/Greek philosopher	205–270 advertizing	Revived the Pythagorean manner of life.
Porphyrios	Greek author	234–305 advertizing	Wrote the first book on vegetarians that has been preserved.

Tabular array 2

Famous vegetarians in ancient Greece ⁱ

Name	Profession	Dates of nascence and decease	Reference to vegetarianism
Pythagoras	Greek philosopher and mathematician	570–500 bc	Considered the founder of ethical vegetarianism. He recommended beast food only from living organisms (milk, eggs).
Plato	Greek philosopher	428–348 bc	In his book Politeia, he suggested that town people be vegetarian to stay healthy. Just meat eaters living in the land need a doctor.
Xenokrates	Greek philosopher	395–314 bc	Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism (non preserved, documented past other Greek writers).
Theophrastus	Greek philosopher	370–287 bc	Believed that humans and animals are related to one another physically and mentally.
Apolloius	Greek philosopher and preacher	40–90 ad	Was considered the first documented prominent vegan.
Ovid	Roman poet	47 bc to 17 ad	In his book Metamorphosis he provided strong arguments confronting eating meat.
Plutarch	Greek poet	45–120 advertizing	Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism that is preserved. In his book Moralia he recommends respecting animals.
Plotin	Egyptian/Greek philosopher	205–270 advertizing	Revived the Pythagorean way of life.
Porphyrios	Greek author	234–305 ad	Wrote the outset book on vegetarians that has been preserved.

Name	Profession	Dates of birth and death	Reference to vegetarianism
Pythagoras	Greek philosopher and mathematician	570–500 bc	Considered the founder of ethical vegetarianism. He recommended fauna food simply from living organisms (milk, eggs).
Plato	Greek philosopher	428–348 bc	In his book Politeia, he suggested that town people be vegetarian to stay good for you. Simply meat eaters living in the state need a physician.
Xenokrates	Greek philosopher	395–314 bc	Wrote the beginning paper on vegetarianism (non preserved, documented by other Greek writers).
Theophrastus	Greek philosopher	370–287 bc	Believed that humans and animals are related to one another physically and mentally.
Apolloius	Greek philosopher and preacher	40–90 ad	Was considered the first documented prominent vegan.
Ovid	Roman poet	47 bc to 17 ad	In his book Metamorphosis he provided stiff arguments against eating meat.
Plutarch	Greek poet	45–120 advertizing	Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism that is preserved. In his book Moralia he recommends respecting animals.
Plotin	Egyptian/Greek philosopher	205–270 ad	Revived the Pythagorean mode of life.
Porphyrios	Greek author	234–305 ad	Wrote the first book on vegetarians that has been preserved.

Virtually of the reasons given for practicing vegetarian diet accept hardly changed over the by 2.5 millennia. The ancient Greeks believed that animals were related to humans and that they were able to communicate and recollect. Information technology was held that humans are legally responsible for animals and that killing them meant injustice and harm. The ancient Greeks were of the stance that fauna welfare taught humans virtually humanitarianism and they believed in reincarnation. The ancient Greeks observed that eating meat can exist harmful to wellness and felt that it influenced the mind. They were of the opinion that plant food was supposed to cleanse the soul and that vegetarianism leads to an alignment with the gods. Also, they knew that in that location was enough food without eating meat (vi).

There are no records of vegetarian nutrition in Europe later the ancient Greek and ancient Roman periods (6th century ad). In the Renaissance era, Leonardo da Vinci practiced vegetarian nutrition. He was convinced that "the time will come when we condemn the eating of animals, just as today we condemn the eating of our own kind, the eating of humans." During the Age of Enlightenment, individuals such as Tyron, Rousseau, Voltaire, Wesley, and many others practiced vegetarian nutrition. The number of vegetarians at that time is unknown but it was probably small-scale. Many people who ate mainly plant food probably did and then for fiscal reasons.

In 1847, the first vegetarian guild was started in England. The American Vegetarian Gild was founded in 1850 and the German Vegetarian Social club was initiated in 1867, followed by the institution of vegetarian societies in many other countries. The International Vegetarian Union was started in Dresden in 1908; the offset Vegan Society began in Leicester, England, in 1944; and the European Vegetarian Union was established in Brussels in 1985.

These developments were fostered by prominent representatives of vegetarian nutrition such as Sylvester Graham (United States, 1784–1851; invented Graham staff of life, based on whole-grain flour, and recommended eating raw food); John Harvey Kellogg (Usa physician, 1853–1943; invented cornflakes and patented a procedure for making peanut butter); Maximilian Bircher-Benner (Swiss doc, 1867–1939; invented muesli, speculated well-nigh phytochemicals in institute foods).

During this time there were as well some eminent vegetarians, such as George Bernard Shaw, an Irish playwright (1856–1950), who said "Animals are my friends, and I don't eat my friends." The Indian statesman Mohandas Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) said, "At that place is enough for everybody'southward feed, simply not enough for everybody's greed." Albert Einstein, the German-US physicist (1875–1955) believed that "Nothing volition increase the chances of survival for life on world as much every bit the evolution to a vegetarian diet" and Albert Schweitzer, German doc (1875–1965), said, "We must renounce meat consumption and speak up confronting it."

Contempo VEGETARIAN Nutrition

In the final decades of the 20th century, constitute-based nutrition became a topic of formal scientific inquiry. The attempt to identify the most beneficial diets for humans was initiated by ecologic information from the and so however young scientific discipline of epidemiology obtained past studies in African, Asian, and Mediterranean countries. These data showed that populations living in these regions had, on average, the lowest rates of nutrition-related noncommunicable diseases and lived a rather long life (7–9). Traditional Asian and Mediterranean diets are largely based on institute foods, suggesting that a plant-based diet provides wellness benefits beyond supplying nutrients in adequate amounts.

This heralded the replacement of one conceptual world view past some other, commonly called a paradigm shift. The recognition of this image shift toward vegetarian diets was first documented by Joan Sabaté of Loma Linda Academy (10, 11). This prototype shift took place in various phases and was illustrated by Sabaté in 3 graphical models. The models depict the expected health risks and benefits of populations adhering to either a meat-based diet or a vegetarian diet. The models are a description of the celebrated progression of the scientific understanding of the effects of these 2 singled-out diets.

Stage 1

The first model shows that in the 1960s (and actually prevailing through the 1970s), a population post-obit a vegetarian diet was thought to exist at a college risk of developing a nutrient deficiency than a population adhering to a meat-based diet. It is of import to note that in this model the potential benefits of a vegetarian diet, such every bit the prevention of chronic and degenerative diseases, were not included (Effigy 1).

Figure one.

Early model on the adequacy of vegetarian diets that prevailed through the 1960s. The area under each curve represents the proportion of individuals in a population for which a given diet pattern may be adequate or deficient. The variable

Early model on the capability of vegetarian diets that prevailed through the 1960s. The surface area nether each curve represents the proportion of individuals in a population for which a given diet pattern may be adequate or deficient. The variable "n" on the y-axis represents the number of individuals in a population following a diet that results in a health outcome, either disease or health. Reprinted with permission from reference xi.

Remarkably, this cess was non based on the available observation that people in some Asian countries had consumed vegetarian diets for millennia without nutrient deficiencies, equally long as they had enough to eat. This assessment was based on the longstanding ascertainment that in poor countries with widespread malnutrition, diets consisted mostly of plant foods. This blazon of malnutrition, nevertheless, is largely attributable to poverty, which leads to an unbalanced diet (12, thirteen). The fact that some vegetarians with medical issues came to the attention of the media and that some children in Western countries consuming vegan or macrobiotic diets were indeed malnourished (fourteen, fifteen) fostered the conventionalities and the widespread prejudice of the inadequacy of vegetarian diets. This cultural bias against vegetarian nutrition was besides in accordance with the mainstream opinion at that time that vegetarian diets would atomic number 82 to malnutrition (fifteen).

Stage 2

During the 1980s and the 1990s, numerous nutritional epidemiologic studies documented the benefits of vegetarian and other plant-based diets (4, 16–19). In particular, the reduction in the risks of many chronic and degenerative diseases (obesity, ischemic heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers) and full mortality, every bit well as increased longevity, were attributed to the greater amount and variety of plant foods and their various components, likewise as to the absenteeism of meat. Protective effects were consistently shown for diets of plant origin, whereas detrimental effects were correlated with the amount of meat consumed. It appeared that the positive effects of plant foods for disease prevention were more important than the adverse effects of meat consumption. This knowledge did not quite convince the greater scientific community, equally depicted in the 2d model, which represents the general opinion of the concluding decades of the 20th century (Figure two).

Figure 2.

The model on population health risks and benefits of vegetarian and meat-based diets that prevailed during the 1980s and 1990s. The area under each bend represents the proportion of individuals in a population for which a given diet pattern may be a health risk or do good. The area in the center represents the proportion of individuals for which the diet is optimal or most beneficial. The variable "n" on the y-centrality represents the number of individuals in a population following a diet that results in a health result, either illness or wellness. Reprinted with permission from reference xi.

As indicated in Figure 2, the available evidence from studies in vegetarians was ignored to a big extent and skepticism toward a vegetarian diet still constituted the prevailing view. This is shown in Figure 2 past the minimal extent to which the potential risk of nutrient deficiency was reduced compared with that shown in Effigy 1 for a vegetarian diet. A novel aspect of the model in Figure 2 was a small increase in disease gamble associated with a vegetarian diet attributable to obesity in sedentary vegetarians consuming more ready-to-eat constitute foods that unremarkably contain high amounts of depression-quality fatty or monosaccharides or salt (11). The risk of nutrient deficiency associated with a meat-based diet was only slightly increased because of the rather unbalanced nutrient composition of fast nutrient and other nutrient-poor diets (11). Affliction risk increased essentially on the footing of the increase in obesity in adults and children akin in sedentary populations worldwide, particularly for those living in affluent circumstances (eleven, 20).

Phase iii

At the time of the conception of the models at the turn of the century, model 2 showed the then existing opinion. On the ground of increasingly robust scientific information on vegetarian diets, a new paradigm emerged (Figure 3).

FIGURE three.

The model that prevails today. The area nether the curve represents the proportion of individuals in a population for which a given diet pattern may exist a health risk or benefit (optimal). At both extremes of the wellness continuum, there is risk of disease for deficiency or excess of nutrients or other food compounds. The expanse in the center represents the proportion of individuals for which the diet is optimal or nearly beneficial. The variable "northward" on the y-axis represents the number of individuals in a population post-obit a diet that results in a health outcome, either disease or wellness. Reprinted with permission from reference 11.

Model iii was based on increasing epidemiologic, clinical, and bones science information showing numerous health advantages of vegetarian diets (two, 4, 21), peculiarly those associated with the increasing recognition of the various benefits of antioxidants in the form of phytochemicals (22–24). As the term implies, phytochemicals are synthesized by plants just and are just nowadays in minimal amounts in animal products. At present, we know a fair amount, but certainly not everything, near phytochemicals and their metabolic roles. Plants synthesize phytochemicals for many of their functions; and on the basis of data from basic and clinical science and studies in animals and tissue cultures, our body uses these substances in various functions (22) (Effigy iv). The reduction in the occurrence of cardiovascular diseases and certain cancers in populations consuming a vegetarian diet is ascribed in part to these bioactive establish compounds (25). Conversely, some experts consider that meat-based diets cause a phytochemical deficiency (26).

FIGURE 4.

Functions of phytochemicals. Reprinted with permission from reference 22.

Model 3 is no longer a projection into the future but has go reality and represents the current agreement. The available data have confirmed the wellness benefits of vegetarian diets (18, 19, 27–32).

VEGETARIAN NUTRITION TODAY

Today, vegetarian nutrition has a growing international post-obit. The increase in the number of vegetarians and vegans is attributable to health concerns and is also attributable to ethical, ecology, and social concerns. Vegetarians even so remain a minor minority in all countries except for Bharat, where approximately i-tertiary of the population is vegetarian. The information apropos the number of vegetarians is based on census data but besides on intelligent "guess-timates" (Table iii). The data show that ~ten% of vegetarians are vegans; the number of vegans is increasing more apace than those of vegetarians.

TABLE 3

Numbers of vegetarians in selected countries ¹

Country	Population	No. of vegetarians	Proportion of vegetarians
	Millio n	One thousand thousand	%
India	1260	450	35
Italy	61	5.9	nine
Great Britain	63	5.4	ix
Federal republic of germany	82	7.4	9
Netherlands	17	0.vii	4
United States	320	12.ane	4
Canada	35	1.iii	4
Republic of austria	viii	0.25	3
Switzerland	8	0.23	3
France	64	1.2	two

Country	Population	No. of vegetarians	Proportion of vegetarians
	Millio n	Meg	%
Republic of india	1260	450	35
Italy	61	5.9	nine
Nifty United kingdom	63	five.4	9
Germany	82	7.4	9
Netherlands	17	0.7	iv
United States	320	12.1	4
Canada	35	1.three	four
Austria	eight	0.25	3
Switzerland	8	0.23	three
France	64	1.2	2

Information based on average values of unlike censuses of different vegetarian societies. In Africa, Eastern Europe, and S America, the number of vegetarians is more often than not <1%. See references 33 and 34.

TABLE iii

Numbers of vegetarians in selected countries ¹

Land	Population	No. of vegetarians	Proportion of vegetarians
	Millio north	Meg	%
India	1260	450	35
Italy	61	five.9	ix
Slap-up Great britain	63	5.iv	9
Frg	82	7.4	9
Netherlands	17	0.7	4
U.s.	320	12.1	4
Canada	35	1.three	4
Austria	8	0.25	3
Switzerland	8	0.23	3
France	64	i.2	two

State	Population	No. of vegetarians	Proportion of vegetarians
	Millio n	Million	%
India	1260	450	35
Italia	61	5.ix	ix
Uk	63	5.iv	ix
Germany	82	7.4	9
Netherlands	17	0.7	4
United States	320	12.i	four
Canada	35	one.3	4
Austria	8	0.25	3
Switzerland	8	0.23	3
French republic	64	1.ii	2

Data based on average values of different censuses of different vegetarian societies. In Africa, Eastern Europe, and South America, the number of vegetarians is mostly <1%. See references 33 and 34.

The vegetarian motion is now supported by many leaders in the arts, sciences, music, and sports. In improver to the growing number of vegetarians and vegans, increasingly more than people in Western countries continue to reduce their meat consumption. This tin can be documented by the average amount of meat consumed in a state such as Deutschland, where the consumption of meat has decreased by well-nigh x% in the past 30 y (35). By comparison, meat consumption is still increasing in the United States and in well-nigh emerging economies (36, 37).

Today, many vegetarians are non fully enlightened of the wellness potential of establish diets. In add-on, those who follow a vegetarian diet because of concern for animals or the environment may not be enlightened of potential nutrient deficiencies. Following are 3 areas of importance for nutrition education for vegetarians.

1) An private's decision to change to a vegetarian way of life affects the quality of his or her nutritional status. The extent of nutrient deficiencies is higher in persons who become vegetarians for intellectual (ethical, moral, religious, spiritual) and social (ecologic, economical, political) reasons compared with those who turn to vegetarianism for physical (health, hygiene, toxicology, concrete performance) reasons (33). The latter are primarily concerned virtually their health, and they wish to obtain information as to how to properly prepare vegetarian meals. The former worry more about the fate of animals, and they proceed their previous dietary habits with the exception of omitting meat and maybe other animal products from their diets (38).
two) Vegetarians are not ever aware of the fact that food is best eaten in its natural course or minimally processed. Nutrient losses by food processing, such as milling and heating, are considerable and are commonly unknown to consumers. For example, nutrients lost past producing white flour from grain are immense (Table 4). Bread, cakes, noodles, and pasta made from whole grains reduce claret cholesterol concentrations and subtract the adventure of cancers of the digestive tract (25). This effect is mainly attributable to the college dietary cobweb content of whole-grain foods. However, isolated dietary fibers added to meals do not have the same effect.
3) The wellness benefits of raw foods may be underestimated by vegetarians. Raw foods do not lose any nutrients by processing and need to be chewed thoroughly to procure the full benefit of their inherent nutritional value. Chewing also stimulates salivation and cleanses the teeth. Raw nutrient increases satiety, supports digestion, and normalizes gut transit time. Last, but not least, raw nutrient prevents overeating (40). The recommendations for raw nutrient intake vary widely and range from most no raw food (Ayurveda) to 100% raw food (strict raw nutrient eaters). The German Nutrition Society recommends an intake of 100 yard raw food/d (41). The concept of wholesome nutrition recommends that approximately half the food consumed should be raw (42). Information technology is worth noting that raw nutrient may not always provide full health benefits. For example, certain phytochemicals (eg, β-carotene, lycopene) are absorbed to a much larger extent from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables (24).
4) Some of the uncertainties voiced past vegetarians are related to the widely differing recommendations for critical nutrients across countries. Critical nutrients are those that are most frequently identified equally not being supplied in sufficient amounts in certain population subgroups (Table v). Unexpectedly, there are only modest differences in what constitutes a critical nutrient between meat eaters and vegetarians because nigh critical nutrients are the same for both groups. One exception is folate, which is considered a critical food for meat eaters but presents no trouble for vegetarians and vegans. In add-on, vitamin B-12 and peradventure the n–3 fatty acids are critical for vegans and for some, merely not all, meat eaters or lactoovovegetarians.

TABLE four

Food losses attributable to processing grain ^ane

Whole-repast flour (=100%) compared with white flour	Reduction
	%
Dietary fiber	58
Folate	61
Iron	62
Thiamin	78
Zinc	79
Magnesium	ninety
Selenium	92

Whole-meal flour (=100%) compared with white flour	Reduction
	%
Dietary fiber	58
Folate	61
Fe	62
Thiamin	78
Zinc	79
Magnesium	90
Selenium	92

TABLE 4

Nutrient losses attributable to processing grain ¹

Whole-repast flour (=100%) compared with white flour	Reduction
	%
Dietary fiber	58
Folate	61
Iron	62
Thiamin	78
Zinc	79
Magnesium	90
Selenium	92

Whole-meal flour (=100%) compared with white flour	Reduction
	%
Dietary fiber	58
Folate	61
Atomic number 26	62
Thiamin	78
Zinc	79
Magnesium	90
Selenium	92

TABLE 5

Potential critical nutrients in the average population of Western countries

Food	Groups at risk ¹ (group averages)
Iron	Especially girls and immature women
Iodine	Only 70% of the official recommendation is attained
Zinc	Particularly children and senior citizens
Calcium	Especially the immature and the old
Vitamin D	Depending on synthesis in the pare
Folate	Especially vegetable avoiders
n–3 Fat acids	Only 50% of the official recommendation is attained

Nutrient	Groups at risk ¹ (grouping averages)
Iron	Especially girls and young women
Iodine	Simply 70% of the official recommendation is attained
Zinc	Peculiarly children and senior citizens
Calcium	Specially the young and the old
Vitamin D	Depending on synthesis in the skin
Folate	Particularly vegetable avoiders
due north–three Fatty acids	But l% of the official recommendation is attained

Common at-risk groups with increased nutrient requirements: children, pregnant and nursing women, the elderly, and the ill. See references 34 and 43.

TABLE v

Potential critical nutrients in the average population of Western countries

Food	Groups at gamble ^one (group averages)
Iron	Specially girls and young women
Iodine	Only 70% of the official recommendation is attained
Zinc	Especially children and senior citizens
Calcium	Especially the young and the erstwhile
Vitamin D	Depending on synthesis in the skin
Folate	Especially vegetable avoiders
n–iii Fatty acids	Just 50% of the official recommendation is attained

Nutrient	Groups at risk ¹ (group averages)
Iron	Especially girls and young women
Iodine	Only 70% of the official recommendation is attained
Zinc	Especially children and senior citizens
Calcium	Specially the young and the old
Vitamin D	Depending on synthesis in the peel
Folate	Especially vegetable avoiders
n–3 Fatty acids	Merely fifty% of the official recommendation is attained

Common at-adventure groups with increased nutrient requirements: children, pregnant and nursing women, the elderly, and the sick. See references 34 and 43.

Whether a nutrient is considered critical depends to a large extent on the respective nutrient recommendations, which differ between countries. For instance, if the assessment of calcium status is based on the German recommendation, the percentage of vegans that ingest an insufficient corporeality of calcium in a detail group amounts to >ninety%, but using the UK recommendation the charge per unit drops to <ten%. A similar scenario applies with vitamin B-12 (Table 6). It is interesting to note that the unlike recommendations are based on the same international scientific information. Notwithstanding, recommendations for a specific country are fabricated on the footing of the circumstances of that detail population. Less variation in recommendations would eliminate some of the controversies and fears associated with an inadequate nutrient supply for vegetarians and especially vegans. Ultimately, the adequacy of a nutrition depends on the foods that are consumed and not on the name of the nutrition. To summarize, vegetarians need as much nutrition teaching as the rest of the population.

Table vi

Current recommendations for intakes of calcium and vitamin B-12 in selected countries ¹

Country	Calcium	Vitamin B-12	Reference or source
	mg/d	μg/d
United kingdom	500	one.five	43
Japan	600	2.4	Japanese Society of Nutrition and Nutrient Science ²
Canada	700	2.4	Canadian Nutrition Society ^three
Us	800	2.4	44
Germany	grand	3.0	45

Country	Calcium	Vitamin B-12	Reference or source
	mg/d	μg/d
United kingdom	500	one.5	43
Japan	600	2.4	Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science ²
Canada	700	2.4	Canadian Nutrition Society ³
Usa	800	two.4	44
Frg	1000	3.0	45

Values are for adults twenty–l y of age. Data are from references 43 and 44.

Y Nishida, personal communication, 4 Dec 2013.

iii

H Delisle, personal communication, 6 December 2013.

TABLE 6

Current recommendations for intakes of calcium and vitamin B-12 in selected countries ^ane

Country	Calcium	Vitamin B-12	Reference or source
	mg/d	μg/d
Great britain	500	ane.five	43
Nippon	600	ii.four	Japanese Society of Diet and Food Scientific discipline ²
Canada	700	2.four	Canadian Diet Society ³
United States	800	2.iv	44
Frg	1000	three.0	45

Country	Calcium	Vitamin B-12	Reference or source
	mg/d	μg/d
United Kingdom	500	one.5	43
Japan	600	2.4	Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Scientific discipline ²
Canada	700	two.iv	Canadian Nutrition Society ³
Usa	800	two.4	44
Federal republic of germany	1000	3.0	45

Values are for adults 20–50 y of age. Data are from references 43 and 44.

Y Nishida, personal communication, 4 December 2013.

H Delisle, personal advice, half-dozen Dec 2013.

THE FUTURE OF VEGETARIAN NUTRITION

The future of vegetarian diet is promising. On the one hand, there are an increasing number of food scandals that usually concern animal-derived foods. This causes a loss of conviction in these products. On the other hand, in that location is a growing awareness of the numerous long-term positive effects of a vegetarian fashion of life. These positive effects are part of the new science field of study of diet ecology (46, 44) and of the concept of the "new diet science" (48). Both concepts are driven by the urgent demand to seriously consider sustainability in the food chain every bit well equally in all human activities. A summary of these 2 new concepts is found in the Giessen Declaration (49).

There are iv specific reasons why the future of vegetarian nutrition is promising, as follows:

1) Ethical, moral, religious, and spiritual reasons: people no longer desire animals to suffer a miserable life just to satisfy the appetite of meat eaters. Industrial animal product should be discontinued. Organic farming should be supported.
2) Ecologic, economic, and political reasons: people neither want a destruction of the foundation of life on our planet nor do they want the climate to change (46, 50–52). Waste and excesses need to be kept to a minimum. A new principle of prudency is indispensable.
iii) Wellness and hygienic reasons: people no longer desire to suffer from preventable, nutrition-related, noncommunicable diseases. The take a chance of contemporary diseases tin be essentially reduced by a vegetarian way of life.
four) Sustainability and peace reasons: people want continued quality of life combined with responsibleness for themselves, their children, and generations to come up. Mindfulness is called for (46, 50, 51).

Albert Einstein nicely summed upwards his view about the futurity: "For the weak it is the unattainable, for the scared it is the unknown, for the brave it is the opportunity." Nosotros are challenged and obligated to take the responsibility for the opportunities that are inherent in a vegetarian manner of life.

The author had no conflicts of interest to declare.

FOOTNOTES

Presented at the symposium "Sixth International Congress on Vegetarian Nutrition" held in Colina Linda, CA, 24–26 February 2013.

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